How Many People Come to the UK for Work and Study? (2023–2024 Trends and Impacts)

In recent years the UK has seen historically high immigration, driven largely by people arriving to work or study. In 2022 and 2023, record numbers of work visas and student visas were issued, far exceeding pre-pandemic levels. This trend reversed sharply in 2024 after new policies were introduced to curb migration, particularly targeting international students’ family members and lower-paid work visas. Below we break down the latest official statistics on work and study migration, examine who is coming (by visa type, sector, and nationality), and discuss the impact of recent policy changes on universities, the workforce, and the UK economy.

Work vs. Study Migration: Recent Numbers at a Glance

To understand the scale of work- and study-related migration, it helps to look at how many visas were granted for these routes in the past few years. Table 1 summarizes the number of work and study visas issued to main applicants (i.e. the workers or students themselves, not counting their dependants) in 2022, 2023, and 2024, with a pre-pandemic baseline from 2019 for context:

Sources: UK Home Office immigration statistics (2019–2023); Home Office summary for 2024 and provisional 2024 data. (Figures are rounded to the nearest thousand; 2024 work visa figure is year-ending March 2025 as a proxy.)

As the table shows, the number of people coming to the UK on work visas surged to over 337,000 in 2023, more than double the annual number before Brexit and COVID. Similarly, student migration peaked at around 458,000 visas in 2023, about 70% higher than in 2019. These peaks reflected the UK’s post-pandemic “boom” in migration for jobs and education. However, 2024 brought a noticeable drop – work visas for main applicants fell to roughly 192,000 (a ~40% decline), and student visas fell to 393,125 (14% below 2023). This reversal is largely attributed to policy changes we will discuss later. Notably, even after the drop, 2024’s student visa numbers were still nearly 50% higher than pre-pandemic 2019 levels, and work visa grants remained above 2019’s volume as well.

It’s important to note these figures refer to primary visa holders. In previous years a significant additional number of dependants (family members) accompanied work visa holders and students, contributing to overall immigration. For example, in 2023 the Home Office issued 279,000 dependant visas to family of work visa holders – 80% more than in 2022 – and over 140,000 dependant visas to students’ families. These numbers dropped dramatically in 2024 (student dependant visas fell by 85% to about 22,000, and work-related dependants also plummeted) after new restrictions. We’ll explore these changes and their effects below.

Work-Related Migration: Who’s Coming to Work and in What Sectors?

The UK experienced an unprecedented influx of foreign workers in 2021–2023, coinciding with the post-Brexit immigration system and domestic labor shortages. In 2023, 337,240 work visas were granted to main applicants, 26% higher than in 2022 and almost 2.5 times the number in 2019. This included skilled professionals, temporary workers, and others across various sectors. A striking feature of this surge was the domination of the Health and Social Care sector:

• Explosion of the Health & Care Worker visa: By 2023, the “Skilled Worker – Health and Care” route ballooned to 146,477 main visas, nearly double the previous year’s. This was largely driven by care industry roles – in 2023, the UK issued 89,236 work visas for care workers and home carers amid acute staffing shortages. These visas made up a majority of skilled work migration that year. In fact, an analysis by the Migration Observatory found that over 60% of all skilled worker visas in the year to March 2024 went to health and social care jobs.
• Top nationalities for workers: The boom in work visas was fueled especially by recruits from South Asia and Africa. Indian citizens were the largest recipients of UK work visas in 2023, followed by Nigerians. (This reflects India’s prominence in sectors like IT and healthcare, and Nigeria’s in health and care roles.) Other significant source countries for skilled workers included Pakistan, the Philippines, Zimbabwe, and others supplying nurses, doctors, and care staff. Notably, EU nationals now make up only a small fraction of work visa holders (about 7% in 2023) since free movement ended – a dramatic shift from the pre-Brexit era when many EU workers didn’t need visas.
• Other sectors: Aside from healthcare, the skilled work visa route also covers IT, engineering, finance, education, and more. These sectors did see growth post-Brexit, but in late 2023 they started to pull back. By 2024 the number of skilled worker visas (excluding health/care) was dropping – down 39% in the second half of 2024 compared to the same period in 2023, after the government raised salary requirements. Occupations like IT, engineering, and finance professionals saw work visa grants fall by around 22–25% in 2024 compared to 2023. One of the steepest declines was in hospitality: for example, grants for chefs, butchers and other food industry roles fell by 73% in the latter half of 2024 after the tighter rules, highlighting how lower-paid, mid-skilled jobs were hit hardest.
• Temporary and seasonal workers: The UK also brings in short-term migrant workers, notably through the Seasonal Worker visa (for agriculture and horticulture). In 2024, 35,561 seasonal worker visas were issued – filling farm, fruit-picking and poultry jobs that face domestic labor shortages. Over three-quarters of these seasonal workers came from Central Asian countries (e.g. Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan), reflecting recruitment agreements with those nations. The seasonal worker quota expanded in recent years (up from 40,000 places in 2022) to meet sector demand.

The year 2024 marked a sharp downturn in work-related migration, primarily due to policy interventions in the Health and Care route. As shown earlier, total work visas for main applicants fell roughly 40%. The Health and Care Worker visa category effectively went from boom to bust:

• Only 27,174 Health and Care visas were issued to main applicants in 2024 – an 81% drop from the previous year. The route had peaked at ~145,800 in 2023, then collapsed after late-2023 measures to tighten oversight and eligibility for care jobs. By the last quarter of 2023, the Home Office began scrutinizing care sector sponsors more heavily and capped family accompaniment (see Policy Changes section), leading to a dramatic fall-off in new care worker arrivals.
• With far fewer care workers coming in, the number of dependants accompanying work visa holders also plunged. Work visa dependant grants had skyrocketed from 55,500 in 2019 to 277,620 in 2023, driven mostly by families of Health and Care visa holders. In 2024, work dependants fell to 159,321. Even in 2024, over half (53%) of work-route dependants were still on the Health and Care visa, but these were largely from early 2024; in fact, from April to Dec 2024, dependants on the care route dropped 77% compared to the same period the year before. On average, each Health and Care worker was bringing 3 family members with them prior to the crackdown. (By contrast, skilled workers in other fields typically bring around one dependant each.)

In summary, the UK’s work migration trends show a heavy reliance on overseas labor in critical sectors. The NHS and social care sector in particular saw tens of thousands of foreign nurses, doctors, and care aides arrive – until new rules abruptly stemmed that flow in 2024. Meanwhile, sectors like tech and finance also use the skilled visa system, though they were less voluminous than health and have been somewhat affected by the higher salary thresholds. The big picture as of 2024 is that work visa numbers have come down from their peak but remain higher than pre-2020 levels, with the composition shifting back toward higher-paid jobs now that the lower-paid care roles are curtailed.

Study-Related Migration: International Students and Trends by Country

The UK has long been a top destination for international students, and in the early 2020s that trend intensified. Foreign student arrivals hit an all-time high in 2022–2023 before moderating in 2024. According to Home Office data, 457,673 sponsored study visas were granted to main applicants in 2023, which was slightly (5%) lower than 2022’s record intake but still about 70% higher than in 2019. In other words, the government’s target to host 600,000 international students by 2030 was achieved well ahead of schedule. Several factors drove this boom: the lifting of COVID travel restrictions, pent-up demand, and policy changes like the introduction of the Graduate Visa (post-study work) route in 2021, which made the UK a more attractive study destination.

Nationality trends: The profile of international students coming to the UK has evolved. Notably, India has overtaken China as the largest source of new students in the UK. In the year to June 2024, for example, Indian nationals were the most common nationality among study-related migrants (about 127,000 Indian students), followed by Chinese, Nigerian, and other nationals. India’s rise has been striking – Indian students increased more than 300% from 2019 to 2022, driven largely by interest in UK one-year master’s programs and the availability of the post-study work visa. China, which contributed the largest share of foreign students for much of the past decade, saw slower growth and even a slight decline recently, in part due to pandemic effects and stiff competition from other destinations. Other fast-growing source countries in the past couple of years included Nigeria, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, among others. Nigeria in particular saw a surge in students pursuing postgraduate study in the UK (often alongside dependants, a point we’ll revisit). By the 2021/22 academic year, after India and China, Nigeria had become the third largest sending country for UK higher education, and that momentum carried into 2022.

Education levels and fields: Over 60% of sponsored student visas in recent years have been for master’s degree programs, as opposed to undergraduate study. The UK’s one-year taught Master’s courses attract many mid-career professionals and fresh graduates from countries like India and Nigeria, who often bring family with them and intend to work in the UK after graduating. Doctoral (PhD) students and other postgraduate researchers account for a smaller share (they made up roughly 5% of foreign student visas, and notably these are the ones still allowed to bring dependants under the new rules). Around 90% of all international student visa holders are studying at higher education institutions (universities), with only a small fraction going to colleges or schools. Popular fields of study include business, engineering, computer science, health-related fields, and increasingly newer areas like data science and AI – though detailed breakdowns vary by nationality (for instance, Indian students often pursue STEM and business courses, while a significant number of Nigerian students enroll in healthcare and business programs).

The 2024 drop: After peaking in mid-2023, student visa issuances have cooled down. In calendar year 2024, the UK granted 393,125 student visas to main applicants – 14% fewer than in 2023. This marked the first significant decline in student migration since the pandemic. The fall was most pronounced in the latter part of 2023 and early 2024, coinciding with policy changes. One major component of the drop was a collapse in the number of dependants coming with students. In 2022 and 2023, the UK saw an unexpected spike in dependants: roughly 135,000–140,000 student dependant visas were issued in 2022, and 121,000 in 2023 (accounting for about 29% of all those arriving on study visas that year). Many of these were spouses and children of master’s students from countries such as Nigeria, India and Pakistan, where students were more likely to travel with family. This trend was effectively cut off in 2024 – only 17,000 student family members arrived in 2024 (just 6% of the study immigrant total), after new rules banned most from accompanying students. That amounts to an 85% plunge in student dependants in one year. In fact, the Home Office notes that the decrease in dependants accounts for about two-thirds of the entire drop in student-related immigration from 2023 to 2024.

Meanwhile, the number of students themselves coming has also edged down, though less dramatically. Immigration data suggest 423,000 non-EU students arrived in 2023, falling to 266,000 in 2024 (these figures from the ONS include only those who intend long-term stay and exclude EU nationals, but they align with the visa issuance trends). This decrease may partly reflect policy impacts (e.g. students avoiding the UK if they can’t bring family, or if other countries became more attractive) as well as natural post-peak stabilization. Interestingly, emigration of former students is now picking up – about 135,000 non-EU students (and dependants) left the UK in 2024, up from 114,000 the year before, as many who arrived during the post-COVID surge finish their courses and depart or switch visas. As a result, net migration attributable to the study route has begun to fall sharply – net student migration dropped from an estimated +309,000 in 2023 to +131,000 in 2024.

Post-study work and transitions: An important aspect of study migration is how many students stay on to work. The reintroduction of the Graduate Visa in 2021 (allowing 2 years of work without sponsorship for graduates, or 3 years for PhD graduates) has led to a growing number of international students remaining in the UK after their studies. By the end of 2023, data showed that students were indeed staying longer or switching into skilled work visas at higher rates than before. For the cohort of non-EU students who arrived in 2021, nearly 46% had transitioned to a different visa (often a work visa) within three years, compared to only 18% of the 2019 cohort. This suggests the Graduate Route and ease of switching to skilled work have strengthened the pipeline from UK education into the UK workforce. (We will discuss later how policy makers are reexamining this route’s parameters.)

In summary, the UK’s recent student migration trend can be characterized as boom then slight bust. The country achieved record-high foreign student numbers, helping universities’ finances and boosting local economies, but also contributing to record net migration – which prompted the government to intervene. By 2024 the growth had leveled off, primarily because most foreign Master’s students can no longer bring their families. The composition of student inflows has shifted toward single students or those on doctoral programs (who still can bring dependants). India remains the top country of origin for students, followed by China and others, and the UK continues to be an attractive destination – though the sector is now watching closely how policy and global competition will affect future intakes.

Policy Changes in 2023–24 Affecting Students and Skilled Workers

The UK government introduced significant immigration policy changes in 2023 and early 2024 aimed at reducing net migration. These measures chiefly targeted international student routes and certain work visa categories (especially lower-paid care work), as these were identified as major contributors to the surge in numbers. Below is a summary of the key policy updates during this period:

• 🔸 Restricting International Student Dependants (Effective Jan 2024): Announced in May 2023, new rules now ban most foreign postgraduate students from bringing family members with them to the UK. From 1 January 2024, only students enrolled in research-based postgraduate programs (e.g. PhD) or on government-sponsored scholarships can have dependants; taught Master’s students are no longer permitted to bring spouses or children. This was a stark change, as previously all postgraduate students could sponsor dependant visas. The government made this move after student dependant numbers skyrocketed eight-fold between 2019 and 2022. Universities and observers widely expect this rule to have a dampening effect on student enrollment from countries where applicants often have young families. (Indeed, as noted, dependant visas immediately dropped ~85% once the policy took effect.) Alongside this, the Home Office also tightened switching rules: international students can no longer switch into work visa routes before completing their studies. This closes a loophole where some might come as students and then quickly take up employment; now, they must finish the degree first.
• 🔸 Higher Salary Thresholds for Skilled Workers (Effective April 2024): To curb the intake of migrant workers in middle-salary jobs, the minimum salary required for a sponsored Skilled Worker visa was raised from £26,200 to £38,700. This near-50% hike means many job offers that used to qualify (for example, in sectors like hospitality or entry-level IT) no longer meet the threshold, unless the role is on a shortage list or the worker is a “new entrant” grad. The salary floor increase had an immediate impact: in the six months after the change, skilled work visas (excluding health/care) fell by ~39% compared to the year prior, as some employers either opted to pay higher salaries for needed roles or stopped recruiting from abroad for lower-paid positions. The food and hospitality industry was particularly affected – roles like chefs and butchers saw a 73% drop in visa grants in the latter half of 2024. The government’s message to employers was to focus on training domestic workers, using foreign recruitment only for genuinely skilled shortages.
• 🔸 Tightening the Shortage Occupation List: Related to the above, the Home Office reformed what used to be the shortage occupation list. In April 2024 it introduced an “Immigration Salary List” (a revised list of jobs eligible for some salary concessions) and removed the 20% lower salary discount that employers previously enjoyed for shortage roles. In practice, this makes it harder for occupations like nursing, certain tech jobs, or hospitality roles to come in on lower pay. For instance, previously an employer could hire a foreign chef at 80% of the usual going rate under shortage occupation rules – that discount was abolished for new applicants after April 4, 2024. The new “Immigration Salary List” is more restrictive and will be updated based on labor market needs, but generally the direction is toward higher salary requirements across the board. (Notably, health and education roles like NHS jobs and schoolteachers on national pay scales are exempt from the £38,700 general threshold, but they still must meet their own salary minima.)
• 🔸 Ban on Care Worker Dependants & Other Work Visa Changes: In addition to student families, the government also stopped allowing dependants for certain work visa holders. Specifically, from March 2024, “Health and Care” work visa holders in care roles can no longer bring their immediate family. This policy was implemented after it emerged that many care workers on the visa were coming with large families, significantly adding to net migration. (As mentioned, prior to this change there were roughly 3 dependants per care worker visa on average!) The ban on care worker dependants, coupled with stricter oversight of care sector sponsors, contributed to the huge 81% drop in new care worker visas in 2024. The Health and Care Work visa itself – which was a pandemic-era concession adding care assistants to skilled visas in 2022 – is also under review. The government signalled it would close the dedicated social care visa route by 2025 (phasing it out by not accepting new care worker applicants), though this has been discussed in a 2025 immigration white paper and not yet fully implemented. The idea is to reduce reliance on importing care workers and instead invest in the domestic workforce, given concerns about exploitation and low pay in the sector.
• 🔸 Review of the Graduate Post-Study Work Visa: With net migration hitting record highs, policymakers questioned whether the two-year Graduate visa (unsponsored work permit for UK university alumni) was encouraging students to stay in large numbers. The Home Office asked the Migration Advisory Committee to review this route in 2023. The MAC’s report (May 2024) found no significant evidence of abuse – most graduates were using the time to find skilled jobs – and recommended keeping the Graduate route unchanged. As such, the route remains open and popular, allowing international grads to work or job-hunt in the UK for up to 2 years (3 years for PhD holders). However, political debate continues. In late 2024, the then-opposition (now current government) floated proposals to shorten the Graduate visa from 24 months to 18 months as part of an effort to “bring numbers down” while still retaining talent. As of mid-2025 this is a proposal under consideration, not yet enacted, and any change would balance economic interests (businesses value this talent pool) against migration reduction goals.
• 🔸 Higher Income Requirement for Family Visas: (While not directly about work or study routes, it’s worth noting a related policy change that took effect in 2024.) The minimum income for a UK citizen/resident to sponsor a foreign spouse or partner was raised from £18,600 to £29,000 in April 2024. This was intended to reduce family-route migration and ensure sponsors can financially support dependants. It likely only marginally affects student or worker decisions, but it does intersect (for example, an international student who marries a British person now faces a higher bar to settle as a spouse). Initial data suggest family visa grants dipped in the latter half of 2024 after this change (e.g. partner visas down ~8%). The new government in 2025 has paused a planned further increase to £38,700 and is reviewing the requirement, acknowledging concerns that too high a threshold could split families.

In sum, the UK’s immigration policy in 2023–24 took a markedly restrictive turn for students and certain workers. The immediate result was a steep fall in new visas for those categories – precisely as intended. Former Home Office officials credited these measures for the sharp drop in net migration by the end of 2024ein.org.uk. The clampdown on student dependants and low-wage work visas represents a policy gamble: it aims to alleviate public concerns about high migration numbers, but it also carries consequences for universities, employers, and the broader economy. The following sections explore those impacts.

Impacts on Universities and the Education Sector

UK universities experienced a financial windfall from the international student boom, but they are now nervously watching the fallout of the new restrictions. Overseas students pay higher tuition fees, which have become crucial to universities’ budgets. By 2022/23, many institutions were heavily reliant on income from foreign (especially postgraduate) students to subsidize research and domestic teaching. With the government now effectively constraining that growth, academic leaders have voiced concern:

• Dropping student numbers and university finances: The ban on dependants and stricter visa rules coincided with a decline in new student visa applications in late 2024. In the July–Sept 2024 period (the main intake season), there were 16% fewer study visa applications than the same quarter in 2023. Applications by student family members virtually collapsed – down 89% in that timeframe. This led to widespread worry in the higher education sector. Universities UK (UUK), representing 140 institutions, said that international student recruitment “remains very challenging” and warned that “the UK’s position as a top study destination is under threat”. In other words, the UK risks losing out to competitor countries (like Canada, Australia, or the US) if it becomes less welcoming.
• Reliance on international fees: Many universities have grown dependent on overseas fee revenue to stay solvent. A recent survey found dozens of UK universities saw their international student numbers drop by a third in 2023/24, raising alarms about budget shortfalls. Nick Hillman, director of the Higher Education Policy Institute (HEPI), commented that the latest visa statistics “confirm our fear that [the] changes have made the UK a less attractive study destination”. If this trend continues, universities may face financial strain, given that foreign students often pay 2–3 times the tuition of local students. University leaders have even called for government support: Jo Grady, general secretary of the University and College Union (UCU), urged the new government to “lift [the] Tory visa restrictions as a first step towards stabilising our universities” and warned that without intervention some institutions might face financial crises. (The government’s response has been that while it “values the contribution” of international students, immigration must be “controlled” in line with public expectations.)
• Quality and diversity concerns: Beyond finances, there’s concern about the broader impact on campus diversity and academic collaboration. International students contribute to research output (especially at the PhD level) and enrich the learning environment. A sudden drop, particularly if concentrated from certain countries, could reverse progress on internationalization. For example, Indian and Nigerian students have been a growing presence; if policy changes deter them, courses – especially in STEM and business fields – might struggle to meet recruitment targets. Some UK education experts also fear that restricting dependants will dissuade older, often highly qualified candidates (who are married with children) from choosing UK universities, perhaps pushing them to competitor countries that allow family (Canada, Australia, etc.). This could inadvertently reduce the talent pool the UK gets from student migration. Early indications from 2024 suggest many prospective students were indeed exploring other countries due to the UK’s rule change.

On the flip side, the government argues these measures will protect quality and prevent misuse of the student route. There had been political rhetoric about certain “low-value” courses being used as a backdoor for immigration. By cutting dependant visas and enforcing completion of studies before switching to work, ministers intended to refocus the student visa on genuine education outcomes. How this will play out remains to be seen – if UK universities see major declines, the policy may be revisited under pressure from the powerful education lobby, which can point to the economic contribution of international students (estimated at over £40 billion per year in tuition and local spending). For now, universities are bracing for tougher recruitment seasons ahead and are emphasizing the need to improve the UK’s post-Brexit image as welcoming to global talent. As UUK put it, “the UK must not signal that it is closing the door” to international students, or else risk long-term damage to the sector’s competitiveness.

Impacts on the UK Workforce and Economy

The interplay between migration and the labor market is complex. On one hand, foreign workers and students contribute skills, fill job vacancies, and bolster public finances; on the other hand, high migration levels raise political and social concerns. The recent reduction in work and study migration is already having noticeable effects in certain areas:

• Healthcare staffing and dependency: The NHS and social care sector arguably had the most to lose from the clampdown on immigration. As of 2023, around 1 in 5 NHS staff in England is a non-UK national – the highest share on record. In critical roles the reliance is even more pronounced: 30% of NHS nurses and 36% of doctors are foreign nationals. Many hail from countries like India, the Philippines, Nigeria, and elsewhere. This international workforce has been “pivotal” to meeting staffing targets and keeping services running. Danny Mortimer, chief executive of NHS Employers, warned that the NHS had “become increasingly reliant on its talented international workforce” and without those overseas recruits, the health service “could have very easily buckled under the pressures” of recent years. Now, with new visa rules severely limiting fresh inflows of care workers and making it harder for overseas nurses to bring family, NHS recruiters face challenges. Hospitals and care homes may find it tougher to attract the numbers of nurses or care assistants needed, at least in the short term, potentially exacerbating staff shortages. In the long run, of course, the aim is to train more domestic health workers – but that will take time and funding. Analysts caution that the UK is “competing with other health systems for overseas staff” and that cutting off the international pipeline abruptly “is far from a sustainable solution” without major investment in local training.
• Other sectors and skill shortages: In industries like information technology, engineering, and hospitality, employers have benefited from the global talent pool. The post-Brexit visa system allowed companies to sponsor skilled workers worldwide, which was particularly useful given record job vacancies in 2022. The tighter rules in 2024 (higher salary thresholds, etc.) mean some of those positions may go unfilled if UK workers aren’t available. For example, the dramatic drop in skilled visas for chefs, butchers, and other hospitality roles (a 73% fall in H2 2024) suggests restaurants and food processing firms could face labor shortages. Some employers responded by raising salaries to meet the new threshold – which could increase business costs/inflation – while others may simply operate understaffed or scale back if they cannot hire chefs or specialists from abroad. In the tech sector, many international IT professionals still qualify under higher pay scales, but the 25% drop in IT-related visas in 2024 indicates some impact. If British tech firms find it harder to bring in needed expertise (say, a specific software engineer or data scientist), this could slow projects or drive them to outsource abroad. The Migration Observatory noted that “some employers are simply paying workers more, while others are stepping back from the visa system” in response to the changes.
• Economic growth and public finances: High levels of work and study migration in 2022–23 contributed significantly to the UK economy – migrants fill crucial jobs, rent homes, spend money, and students pay tuition. Conversely, cutting migration rapidly might have some dampening effect on growth. Professor Jonathan Portes argues that while the Home Office may welcome falling immigration, the Treasury won’t. Fewer international students, for instance, means less fee income and local spending; fewer foreign workers can mean unfilled jobs and lower overall economic activity. Portes expects net migration will continue to fall and predicts this will “throw into sharp relief the tension between migration reductions and the economic growth necessary to improve living standards and finance better public services”. In other words, there’s a trade-off: a smaller labour force and student body could constrain the economy at a time when growth is needed to, say, support the NHS or meet budget goals. That said, not all migration is equal in economic terms. A large portion of the recent cuts came from dependants (family members) who generally do not work full-time or pay substantial taxes (though they do consume goods and services). Dr. Madeleine Sumption of the Migration Observatory observes that the record drop in net migration in 2024 was “possible primarily because numbers had previously been so high,” and crucially, that “the groups that have driven the decline, such as study and work dependants, are neither the highest skilled, highest-paid migrants who make substantial contributions to tax revenues, nor the most disadvantaged groups that require substantial support.” In essence, she suggests that cutting these particular categories may have a relatively small economic impact (since a dependant coming along with a student or care worker isn’t contributing as much economically as the primary visa holder, nor are they a major burden on the state). This nuanced view implies the government managed to reduce headline migration numbers without immediately harming the most economically valuable migration (e.g. skilled tech workers or entrepreneurs). However, Sumption’s point also hints that the benefits of reducing these numbers (beyond optics) are limited – they were not the group driving big productivity gains or costs in the first place.
• International students and the skilled talent pipeline: Another longer-term economic consideration is the talent cultivated by UK education. International students who remain and work in high-skilled jobs become part of the UK’s human capital. By 2023, as noted, nearly half of non-EU students were staying on and contributing to the workforce within three years. If fewer students choose the UK due to stricter rules, the country could lose out on some of these skilled graduates who might have otherwise filled roles in science, engineering, healthcare, etc. Sectors like academia and R&D also worry about losing prospective PhD students to countries with more open policies. The government’s challenge is to balance these economic merits against public concerns on migration. So far, it has maintained the popular Graduate Route and excluded PhD students from the dependant ban (acknowledging their value), while targeting areas viewed as lower-skilled or more prone to abuse.

In summary, the UK economy and labor market feel both positive and negative effects from migration trends. The 2022–2023 influx helped many employers and filled critical gaps (especially in health and social care), while also boosting education exports. The subsequent clampdown in 2024, aimed at relieving migration pressures, has begun to strain those same sectors – forcing the NHS to intensify domestic recruitment, compelling hospitality businesses to adapt, and prompting universities to seek other revenue or cost-cutting. The Office for National Statistics reported that net migration fell to 431,000 in 2024 (from ~860,000 in 2023) mainly because of fewer people arriving on work and study visas and more leaving after finishing studies. That is a policy success in numeric terms, but it comes with real impacts: some universities are worried about their viability, and some employers and public services are warning about worker shortages.

Ultimately, whether these changes are beneficial or harmful to the UK economy is a matter of perspective and time horizon. In the short term, they have “taken the heat out” of migration statistics, addressing political goals. In the longer term, the UK will need to ensure that reducing migration doesn’t undermine its economic dynamism. As Portes alluded, fewer migrants could mean lower growth, unless productivity rises or the domestic workforce expands to compensate. The new policies will likely continue to be fine-tuned: for example, if certain skills can’t be filled locally, the government might add them to the shortage list or adjust rules (already in late 2024 there were tweaks, such as adding construction workers to the shortage list to alleviate labor shortfalls).

Conclusion

The question of “how many people come to the UK for work and study” cannot be answered by a single number – it’s a story of dramatic shifts. In 2023, over a million people (including dependants) arrived on work or study visas, reflecting the UK’s openness after Brexit and COVID. By 2024, that influx was reined back substantially due to deliberate policy choices. Work migration is now refocusing on higher-skilled roles with fewer dependants, and study migration is stabilizing at a lower level with a different composition (more solo students, fewer families).

From a policy watcher’s perspective, the UK is essentially conducting a real-time experiment in calibrating immigration: trying to protect key economic benefits (skilled workers, genuine students) while cutting what it views as “excess” or politically problematic migration (large dependant families, lower-wage workers). The impacts are already unfolding – universities are urging a rethink, the NHS is sounding alarms over staffing, and businesses are adjusting to new hiring constraints. The government, however, points to the drop in net migration by nearly half as evidence that its tough measures are working.

Going forward, much will depend on how these trends play out. Will UK universities lose ground to global competitors, or will a focus on quality over quantity prevail? Will employers invest in local training to fill gaps, or struggle with labour shortages? And will the UK manage to remain an attractive destination for top talent under stricter rules? Policymakers have indicated further changes could come – for example, potential tweaks to the graduate work visa or more selective criteria for work visas. Any such moves will have to balance economic imperatives with the political mandate to control immigration.

For now, the latest data tell a clear story: fewer people are coming to the UK for work and study in 2024 than in the previous year, especially from those high-volume routes that were curtailed. Nationality patterns also shifted, with India cementing its role as the top sender of both workers and students, and EU migration remaining low post-Brexit. The impacts of these shifts are reverberating through universities, industries, and communities across the UK. As one expert succinctly put it, “boom and bust” has characterized some of these visa routes– and the challenge ahead will be achieving a sustainable equilibrium that meets the UK’s economic needs while addressing public concerns.

Sources:

• UK Home Office, Immigration System Statistics, Year Ending Dec 2023 – Work and Study visa datagov.ukgov.uk
• UK Home Office, Immigration System Statistics, Year Ending Dec 2024 – Updated study/work figures and analysisgov.ukgov.uk
• Office for National Statistics (ONS), International Migration Releases 2024 – Breakdown by reason (work, study) and net migration trendsein.org.ukons.gov.uk
• BBC News, “How many people come to work and study in the UK?” (May 2025)bbc.combbc.com
• BBC News, “Drop in foreign student visas worrying for UK universities” (Oct 2024)bbc.combbc.com
• Migration Observatory at Oxford, Commentary: Dramatic fall in visas granted in 2024 (Feb 2025)migrationobservatory.ox.ac.ukmigrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk
• House of Commons Library research briefings on migration and NHS workforcecommonslibrary.parliament.uktheguardian.com
• The Guardian, “Record one in five NHS staff in England are non-UK nationals” (Feb 2024)theguardian.comtheguardian.com
• Additional data from Home Office policy statements and Migration Observatory briefingsgov.ukmigrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk, as cited throughout.